تقدمة موقع آرتين
موقع طلاب الأدب الانكليزي
Reported Speech
· Commands
· Statements
· Questions
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*Commands
The form is mostly: form of to tell + to+ infinitive.
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*Statements
1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported Speech.
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan says that she works in an office.
2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported Speech.
Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.
If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.
Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday."
Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.
Shifting of expressions of time
Note:
In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.
John:"My brother is at leipzig university."
John said that his brother was at leipzig university. or
John said that his brother is at leipzig universisty.
or
Mandy:"The sun rises in the East."
Mandy said that the sun rose in the East. or
Mandy said that ther sun rises in the East.
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*Questions
Questions without question words (yes/no questions):
Peter:"Do you play football?" - Peter asked me whether (if) I played football.
Questions with question words:
Peter:"When do you play football?" - Peter asked me when I played football.
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Sentences
· Contact clauses
· Position of adverbs of frequency
· Position of time in statements
· Relative clauses
· that and which in restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses
· Verbs with two objects
· Word order - statements
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*Contact clauses
The easiest rule is the following: If there is a verb after who or which, you musn't leave out who or which.
You musn't leave out the relative pronoun ( who/which/that ), if isn't subject in the sentence.
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*Position of adverbs of frequency
always, usually, regularly, normally, often, sometimes, occasionally, rarely, seldom, never are adverbs of frequency.
The position of these adverbs is:
before the full verb
after am, are, is (to be)
The adverbs often, usually, sometimes and occasionally can go at the beginning of a sentence.
Sometimes I go swimming.
Often we surf the internet.
We read books occasionally.
the adverbs rarely and seldom can go at the end of the sentence.
He eats bread very seldom.
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*Position of time in statements
- Expressions of time can be put at the beginning or the end of a statement.
- If you want to emphasize the expression of time, put it in front position.
- At the end of the sentence: place before time
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*Relative clauses
who: when we talk about people
which: when we talk about things
whose: instead of his/her or their
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* that and which in restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses
To understand the distinctions between that and which it is necessary to understand restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
Learning these distinctions is one technical aspect of grammar that every user of English should understand, because it is at the root of an assortment of grammatical errors.
1) Nonrestrictive (nondefining) clauses
A nonrestrictive, or nondefining, clause is on that can be regarded as parenthetical:
My house, which has a blue door, needs painting.
The italicized words are effectively an aside and could be deleted. The real point of the sentence is that the house needs painting; the blue door is incidental.
Use commas to set off nonrestrictive elements, which contribute to, but do not determine, the meaning of the sentence. These elements may be clauses (groups of words that contain a subject and a verb) or phrases (groups of words that do not contain both a subject and a verb).
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2) Restrictive (defining) clauses
A restrictive, defining, clause is one that is essential to the sense of the sentence.
My house that has a blue door needs painting.
Here the blue door is a defining characteristic, it helps to distinguish that house from my other houses.
Restrictive clauses or phrases are not separated off with commas. A restrictive clause or phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence; it defines the word it modifies by "restricting" its meaning. Eliminating a restrictive element from a sentence changes its meaning dramatically.
Note that nonrestrictive and restrictive clauses must be introduced by the appropriate relative pronoun.
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NOTE:
In correct usage that is always used to indicate restrictive clauses and which to indicate nonrestrictive ones.
Restrictive clauses should never be set off with commas and nonrestrictive clauses always should.
On that much the authorities are agreed. Where divergence creeps in is on the question of how strictly the distinctions should be observed.
Today, that is more usual in short sentences or early on in longer ones.
The house that john buit.
Which often appears where that would more strictly be correct, particularly in Britain.
Americans, in contrasts, are much more inclined to use that where which might be preferable.
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*Verbs with two objects
normal word oder:
person - thing
I must give my sister a book.
If the thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
I must give it to her.
I gave Mandy the letter.
I gave her the letter.
When you want to emphasize the person, put the person after the thing.
Let's write the letter to John in California.
to describe, to explain, to report and to say - person with to after thing
I explain this rule to you.
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* Word order - statements
If a sentence consists out of more parts, then every part has teh order S-V-O.
تقدمة موقع آرتين
موقع طلاب الأدب الانكليزي